Cyrus The Great

Also Known As: Cyrus II Of Persia, Cyrus The Elder

Gender: Men

Famous As: Founder Of First Persian Empire

Nationality: Iranian

Born: 0590

Died At Age: 60

Born In: Anshan

Father: Cambyses I

Mother: Mandane Of Media

Spouses/Partners: Cassandane, Neithiyti

Children: Atossa, Cambyses II, Artystone, Bardiya, Roxane

Religion: Zoroastrianism

Died On: 530 BC

Place Of Death: Syr Darya

Discoveries/Inventions: Mail

Cyrus the Great, also referred to as Cyrus II of Persia or Cyrus the Elder, was a ruler who founded the First Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire. His empire not only embraced the civilized states of the ancient Near East, but also included large parts of Central and Southwest Asia. Referred to as the “Father of his people” by the ancient Persians, his reign lasted for nearly thirty years. Though he conquered several empires, one unique quality about him was that he showed respect to the religions and cultures of the lands he conquered. This helped in winning the support of the people, and in establishing a proper administration that would work for the benefit of the people. His work, ‘Cyrus Cylinder,’ is the oldest known declaration of human rights. He was also revered for his knowledge of politics as well as military strategy. Respected as an ideal monarch, he has also been referred to as a Messiah by the Hebrew Bible. Cyrus the Great managed to build the world's largest empire of that time. Even after his death, his successors continued to expand the empire. Cyrus is believed to have been killed during a battle with the Massageteans, after which his son Cambyses II succeeded him. Even centuries after his demise, he is still remembered today as one of the greatest leaders in history.

Childhood & Early Life

• The exact date and place of Cyrus’s birth is not known. However, he was born somewhere in the Median empire, sometime between 590 and 580 BCE. His father was Cambyses I, the King of Anshan and his mother was Mandane, daughter of Astyages, the last king of the Median Empire.
• A mythological account of Cyrus’s early life was presented by Herodotus, according to which, his grandfather Astyages had a prophetic dream, in which he saw flood as well as fruit bearing vines emerging from his daughter’s pelvis. This was interpreted negatively by his advisers who told him that his daughter’s son would be a rebel who would try to replace him to become the new ruler.
• As his daughter was pregnant at that time, Astyages, under the influence of his advisors, made the decision to get the baby killed as soon as it was born. The task of killing the baby was given to his chief adviser Harpagus.
• Harpagus was reluctant to perform the gruesome task and he gave the job to a shepherd named Mithradates. The shepherd, however, decided to raise Cyrus as his own son, and pass off his own stillborn son as the dead baby Cyrus.
• Cyrus grew up in secrecy. However, after he beat up the son of a nobleman during a game, he was summoned to Astyages’ court along with his adoptive father. The shepherd confessed the truth, after which Astyages decided to send Cyrus to live with his biological parents.

Ascension & Reign

• Cyrus the Great ascended to the throne in 559 BC, years before his father passed away in 551 BC. However, he was not an independent ruler yet, and had to recognize Median overlordship. Cyrus soon revolted against his grandfather and overlord.
• His grandfather Astyages launched an attack against Cyrus, who at the time was only the King of Ansan. However, Harpagus, who was placed in command of the Median Army, contacted Cyrus beforehand. He also defected with several of the nobility as well as a huge portion of the army. Having being deserted my most of his army, Astyages was soon forced to surrender to Cyrus.
• Cyrus decided to spare the life of Astyages, and married his daughter Amytis. The marriage also helped pacify several vassals.
• Thus, Cyrus gained control over all of the vassals as well as many of his relatives. His uncle Arsames, who was the king of Parsa, also had to give up his throne. However, he was made a nominal governor under Cyrus’s authority. Cyrus’s conquest of the Median Empire was merely marked the beginning of his military expansions.
• A few years after the conquest of the Median Empire, one of his important cities Pteria was attacked by the Lydians. Their king Croesus also enslaved the city’s inhabitants. Therefore, Cyrus gathered his army and marched against the Lydians. This led to the Battle of Pteria. The battle however, ended in a stalemate as both sides suffered heavy casualties. Eventually Croesus was forced to withdraw back to his kingdom.
• After the battle, Croesus, having lost a huge portion of his army, asked his allies for assistance. However, before they could all unite, Cyrus took Croesus by surprise in his capital city Sardis itself. Using various strategies, Cyrus managed to defeat the Lydian forces. According to some accounts, Croesus was killed, while some other accounts state that he was spared death.
• After the war, Cyrus entrusted a Lydian named Pactyas, to send Croesus’ treasury to Persia. However, Pactyas instead rebelled with the help of hired mercenaries, which caused an uprising in Sardis. In order to control the situation, Cyrus sent one of his trusted commanders Mazares. Pactyas was captured eventually after much struggle, and is said to have been tortured and then finally put to death.
• Over the ensuing years, Cyrus the Great vastly expanded his empire through various heroic conquests. He successfully brought under his rule large parts of Asia Minor and the Neo-Babylonian Empire. As a result of his numerous conquests, he was able to build the largest empire of the world of that time.
• Cyrus was not only known for his outstanding military achievements, and conquests, but also for his political knowledge and his contribution to human rights as well. His proclamations which are inscribed on the ‘Cyrus Cylinder’ are described as the first declaration of human rights ever.
• Some scholars argue that the Cylinder does not really talk of human rights, as it would have been a very alien concept during that time. The UN has however declared the relic to be the most ancient declaration of human rights.
• Cyrus the Great also has a religious significance. He has been mentioned in religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Qur’an. The Babylonians regarded him very highly and called him their liberator.

Major Conquests

• With the help of Mazares, Cyrus the Great conquered large parts of Asia Minor as well. However, Mazares passed away of unknown causes during his campaigns. Later, Harpagus was sent to conquer the remaining cities. He used a technique unknown to the Greeks, which involved building earthworks in order to breach the walls of besieged cities. After successfully conquering the areas, Harpagus returned to Persia.
• Soon, Cyrus the Great began his conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He captured Elam and then its capital Susa. In 539 BC, the Battle of Opis was fought between Cyrus’s forces and the Babylonian forces, under their king Nabonidus.
• The battle resulted in a victory for Cyrus, who won without much of a struggle. It is likely that Cyrus had negotiated with some of the Babylonian Generals beforehand to compromise on their part, which is why he managed to emerge victorious easily.
• After his conquest of Babylon, Cyrus helped in improving the lives of the Babylonian citizens. He also allowed the captive Jews to return to their homeland. His empire stretched from Asia Minor in the West to the west of the Northwestern areas of India in the East, becoming the largest empire of the world at that time.

Personal Life & Legacy

• Cyrus the Great married Cassandane, whom he is known to have loved dearly. They had five children—Cambyses II, Bardiya, Atossa, Artystone, and Roxane. He was also married to Amytis, the daughter of Astyages, King of Media. He had several other wives as well whom he married for political reasons.
• Cyrus the Great married Cassandane, whom he is known to have loved dearly. They had five children—Cambyses II, Bardiya, Atossa, Artystone, and Roxane. He was also married to Amytis, the daughter of Astyages, King of Media. He had several other wives as well whom he married for political reasons.
• His remains were interred in the city of Pasargadae. A limestone tomb rests there today, which has remained intact though the city itself is in ruins.
• Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses II. He helped expand the empire by conquering Egypt, Nubia and Cyrenaica, during his short rule.
• Cyrus was also admired by Alexander the Great because of his conquests and governance style. Alexander is believed to have been deeply influenced by his heroism in battles.
• Years later, when Alexander the Great invaded Persia, the tomb suffered a lot of damages. He ordered the tomb to be renovated when he came to know about its condition.

Tipu Sultan

Quick Facts

Famous As: Ruler Of The Kingdom Of Mysore

Nationality: Indian

Birth Date: November 20, 1750

Died At Age: 48

Sun Sign: Scorpio

Born In: Devanahalli

Father: Hyder Ali

Mother: Fatima Fakhr-Un-Nisa

Spouse/Partner: Sindh Sultan

Religion: Islam, Sunni Islam

Died On: May 4, 1799

Place Of Death: Srirangapatna

Tipu Sultan was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore renowned for his bravery in the wars against the British East India Company. Well known for his valor and courage, he is regarded as the first freedom fighter of India for his fierce battles against the British who tried to conquer the territories under the sultan’s rule. The Treaty of Mangalore, which he signed with the British East India Company to bring an end to the Second Anglo-Mysore War, was the last occasion when an Indian king dictated terms to the British. As the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore, Tipu Sultan ascended to the throne after the death of his father in 1782. As ruler, he implemented several innovations in his administration and also expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets which he would later deploy against the advances of the British forces. His father had diplomatic political relations with the French and thus Tipu Sultan had received military training from French officers as a young man. After becoming the ruler, he continued his father’s policy of aligning with the French in their struggle against the British. He fought several wars against the British and tried his best to defend his kingdom from falling into the hands of the British East India Company. Committed to his country till the very end, he died while fighting in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.

Childhood & Early Life

• Tipu Sultan was born on 20 November 1750 in present-day Bengaluru Rural district to Hyder Ali. His father was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India who rapidly rose in power to become the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in 1761.
• Hyder Ali, who himself was illiterate, was very particular about giving his eldest son a good education befitting a prince. Tipu Sultan received education in subjects like Hindustani language (Hindi-Urdu), Persian, Arabic, Kannada, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing.
• His father had political relations with the French and thus the young prince was trained in military and political affairs by highly efficient French officers. He was just 15 when he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766.
• Over the years Hyder went on to become the most powerful ruler in the entire southern India and Tipu Sultan played significant roles in his father’s successful military campaigns.

Accession & Reign

• In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahé, which was under Tipu’s protection. Hyder Ali opened hostilities against the British in retaliation in 1780, and achieved significant success in early campaigns of what became known as Second Anglo-Mysore War. However as the war progressed, Hyder Ali became ill with cancer and died in December 1782.
• Following the death of his father, Tipu Sultan was made the ruler of Mysore on 22 December 1782. He immediately started working on military strategies to check the advances of the British by making alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. Eventually he was successful in signing the Treaty of Mangalore with the British in 1784, bringing an end to the Second Mysore War.
• As a ruler, Tipu Sultan proved to be an efficient one. He completed the projects left behind by his father, built roads, bridges, public buildings, ports, etc. and also made numerous military innovations in the use of rocketry in wars. Through his determined efforts, he built a formidable military force that inflicted serious damages to the British forces.
• More ambitious by now, he planned to expand his territories and set his eyes upon Travancore, which according to the Treaty of Mangalore, was an ally of the British East India Company. He launched an attack on the lines of Travancore in December 1789 but was met with resistance from the army of the Maharajah of Travancore. This marked the beginning of the Third Anglo–Mysore War.
• The Maharajah of Travancore appealed to the East India Company for help, and in response, Lord Cornwallis formed alliances with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad to oppose Tipu and built a strong military force.
• The company forces attacked Tipu Sultan in 1790 and soon took control over much of the Coimbatore district. Tipu counterattacked, but was not much successful in his campaigns. The conflicts continued for over two years and ended only after he signed the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792 which resulted in his losing a number of territories, including Malabar and Mangalore.
• Even though he had lost many of his territories, the courageous Tipu Sultan was still considered a formidable enemy by the British. In 1799, The East India Company, in alliances with the Marathas and the Nizam attacked Mysore in what became known as the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, and captured Srirangapatna, the capital of Mysore. Tipu Sultan was killed in the war.

Major Wars

• He was a brave warrior and proved his mettle in the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Dispatched by his father to fight the British forces, he displayed great courage in the initial conflicts. His father died in the middle of the war and he succeeded him as the ruler of Mysore in 1782 and successfully ended the war with the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784.
• The Third Anglo-Mysore War was another major war he fought against the British forces. This war, however, proved to be a major failure and cost the sultan dearly. The war ended with the Treaty of Seringapatam according to which he had to give up about one-half of his territories to the other signatories which included the British East India Company, representatives of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Mahratta Empire.

Personal Life & Legacy

• Tipu Sultan had several wives and numerous children including Shahzada Hyder Ali Sultan, Shahzada Abdul Khaliq Sultan, Shahzada Muhi-ud-din Sultan, and Shahzada Mu'izz-ud-din Sultan.
• A brave warrior, he died on 4 May 1799 while fighting the British forces in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. As one of the first Indian kings to have died on the battlefield while defending his kingdom against the Colonial British, he was officially recognized by the Government of India as a freedom fighter.
• While he is revered as a hero of the Indian independence movement in several regions in India and Pakistan, he is also regarded as a tyrannical ruler in certain regions in India.
• The British Army's National Army Museum ranked Tipu Sultan among the greatest enemy commanders the British Army ever faced.

Trivia

• Tipu was commonly known as the Tiger of Mysore and he adopted this animal as the symbol (bubri/ babri) of his rule.
• Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the former President of India, called Tipu Sultan the innovator of the world's first war rocket.

Henry II Of England

Quick Facts

Famous As: King Of England

Nationality: French

Birth Date: March 15, 1133

Died At Age: 56

Sun Sign: Pisces

Born In: Le Mans, France

Father: Geoffrey The Fair, Count Of Anjou

Mother: Empress Matilda

Spouse/Partner: Eleanor Of Aquitaine (M. 1152–1189)

Children: Richard The Lionheart, King John, Henry The Young King, Eleanor Of England, Geoffrey II, Duke Of Brittany, Joan Of England, Queen Of Sicily, William Longespée, Matilda Of England, Duchess Of Saxony, Geoffrey, Archbishop Of York, William IX, Count Of Poitiers, Morgan (Bishop)

Died On: July 6, 1189

Henry II, also known as Henry Curtmantle or Henry FitzEmpress, was the King of England (1154–89) and the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty that would rule over the country for almost 300 years after him. His various other titles included Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Count of Nantes, and Lord of Ireland. At different points in his life he had control over Wales, Scotland, and Brittany as well. Ambitious, energetic, and ruthless, Henry grew up with the same drive as his mother to restore the land and privilege of his royal grandfather, Henry I, becoming an active participant at 14 in her effort to claim the English throne. In 1153, he launched a military expedition to England which resulted in a peace treaty declaring Henry as the heir. He became the king a year later. After two decades of infighting and unrest known as ‘The Anarchy’, Henry brought law and order to the country and expanded her boundaries to create the Angevin Empire. He raised minor lords to important administrative positions, paving the way for modern bureaucracy. His legal reforms laid the foundation for the ‘English Common Law’. The later years of his reign are marred by his sons’ rebellion against him. Though he crushed their first attempt, he eventually had to agree to completely surrender and retreat to Chinon in Anjou where he died.

Childhood & Early Life

• Henry was born on March 5, 1133, at Le Mans in France to Empress Matilda and Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine. He was the eldest of three brothers, Geoffrey VI and William being the other two. His claim to the English throne came through his maternal grandfather and Matilda’s father, Henry I. The King of the English during the Anarchy, Stephen of Blois, was his uncle.
• After her father’s death in 1135, Matilda was named the successor but Stephen promptly occupied the English throne and was recognised as the Duke of Normandy. The situation quickly degenerated into a civil war. Geoffrey, feeling the time was correct for an attack, took control of the duchy of Normandy, while on a different front, Matilda and her half-brother Robert of Gloucester continued their struggle against Stephen.
• It is quite likely that Henry spent the early years of his life in his mother’s household and when she moved to Normandy, he accompanied her. At about seven, He came to stay in Anjou with his father.
• In late 1142, Henry, accompanied by Robert, went to Bristol, following the instruction of his father. The South-Western English town was the epicentre of Angevin opposition to Stephen and the importance of Henry’s presence there was more than symbolic. It stopped the criticism against Geoffrey that he was not doing enough in the war against England. Henry returned to Anjou in 1143 or 1144.
• Though he lacked both his mother’s seriousness and his father’s charm, Henry was forceful and confident. He studied under some of the best tutors of the time, grammarian Peter of Saintes and scholastic philosopher William Conches. He was instructed by a magister named Master Matthew at Robert’s house. Besides the formal education, he studied the canons of St Augustine's in Bristol.
• He came back to England in 1147 with a small group of mercenaries and invaded Wiltshire. Though it did cause some initial panic, the attack did not surmount to anything. Henry was not able to even pay his mercenaries and neither his mother nor Robert was willing to pay off his debts. Surprisingly, he sent an appeal to Stephen who took care of the outstanding wages. Henry retired back to France with his dignity intact.

Accession & Reign

• The violence between the factions had simmered down by the late 1140s with barons from both camps suing for individual peace. The English Church was weighing options of promoting a peace treaty. Around this time, Louis VII, the King of France, returned from the Second Crusade. He instantaneously recognised the power Geoffrey has garnered in his absence.
• Geoffrey declared Henry as the duke of Normandy in 1150 and Louis retaliated by naming Eustace, one of Stephen’s sons, as the rightful heir to the duchy and instigated an attack on Normandy to rout Henry. Upon his father’s suggestion, Henry accepted Louis as his feudal lord, paying homage to him, and in turn, Louis authorised him as the Duke.
• Due to his father’s death in 1151, Henry had to postpone his plans of his second expedition to England for some time. The delay served an ulterior purpose as well. He had expressed his desire to marry Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine in past. Eleanor was already married to Louis but had not borne him a male heir. Thus Louis pursued annulment of the marriage and was ultimately granted so. Only eight weeks after that, on May 18, Henry wedded Eleanor.
• The marriage was not only a personal slight to Louis, but it also jeopardized the future inheritance of his two daughters with Eleanor. The marriage also brought more French lands under Henry’s possession than Louis’. It would create an enmity between the two men and their respective dynasties that would last well beyond their lifetimes.
• Henry and Eleanor would have eight children together: five sons, William (born 1153), Henry (1155), Richard (1157), Geoffrey (1158), and John (1166), and three daughters, Matilda (1156), Eleanor (1161), and Joan (1165).
• Louis formed a coalition against Henry that included Stephen, Eustace, and Henry’s younger brother, Geoffrey, who claimed that Henry was expropriating him of his inheritance. The ensuing skirmishes only strengthened Henry’s hold on his lands.
• He finally travelled back to England in 1153, crossing the sea amid winter storms. Seeing that the active civil war was about break out in the island again, the clergies took initiative and brokered peace between the warring parties. In the summer of 1153, ‘Treaty of Wallingford’ was agreed to between Stephen and Henry at Winchester Cathedral. It made Henry Stephen’s adoptive son and successor and in exchange, the former paid homage to the latter.
• Henry inherited the English throne sooner than he had previously imagined, as Stephen died of a stomach disorder on October 25, 1154. He landed on English shore on December 8, and 11 days later, he and Eleanor were crowned the King and Queen of England at Westminster.
• In April 1155, the royal court assembled where most of the English nobility swore fealty to Henry. However, several potential rivals still persisted, including his brothers, Geoffrey and William, and Stephen’s remaining son, William. But with their deaths in the coming few years, Henry’s position as the king became relatively secure.
• One of the biggest challenges facing the new king was the absolute disarray following the Anarchy. He declared himself as the heir of Henry I, and began reconstruction of his kingdom. The intermediate 19 years of Stephen’s rule were portrayed as chaotic and violent and Stephen was named a usurper. Henry presented himself as a monarch who was welcoming to counsels, consciously setting himself apart from his mother’s method of administration.
• He pushed back the territories of the King of Scotland and the local Welsh lords beyond the pre-civil war borders, restoring the Anglo-Norman supremacy in the island,
• In 1160, Louis and Henry sought peace with each other through a marriage alliance between Louis’ daughter Margaret and Henry’s eldest surviving son, Young Henry. As the prospect of permanent peace seemed possible between the two, Henry turned his focus towards the Duchy of Brittany and Toulouse. While he did bring the Breton duke to heels, his campaign to Toulouse sparked his rivalry with Louis once more. A second peace treaty was negotiated in 1162, supervised by Pope Alexander III.
• The tension between the two rulers continued to persevere throughout the 1160s, and culminated in an open war in 1167. Louis attacked Normandy and a furious Henry reciprocated by putting Chaumont-sur-Epte, a town where Louis stored his military arsenal, to flame.
• After a private truce with the French King, Henry looked to consolidate his power in France by betrothing his son John to the daughter of the Count of Savoy and marrying his own daughter Eleanor to Alfonso VIII of Castile.
• Henry launched a successful invasion to Ireland in 1171. The treaty of Windsor was signed in 1175, which stipulated, among other things, that the high king of Ireland, Rory O’Connor, would pay homage to Henry.

The Thomas Becket Controversy

• Arguably the biggest international incident during Henry II’s reign was the Thomas Becket controversy. Becket, who was one of minor lords raised to power and authority by Henry, was his English Chancellor. After the death of Archbishop of Canterbury Theobald of Bec in 1161, he forced the clergies to accept Becket as archbishop. His feud with the Church was long-standing and he probably believed that, with Becket at the helm, he would be able to impose more control over the Church.
• Becket, however, renounced his relationship with the King and turned pious. In 1170, Henry had Young Henry crowned as the Junior King by the Archbishop of York. An enraged Becket excommunicated several supporters of Henry from the Church. Upon hearing of this, Henry infamously remarked, “What miserable drones and traitors have I nourished and promoted in my household, who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born clerk.”
• In response, four knights went to Canterbury without a direct order from the king and hacked Becket to death on December 29, 1170. It was a political and administrative disaster that would haunt Henry for years to come.

The Great Revolt & Surrender

• All of Henry II’s sons except John rose in rebellion against their father in 1173, with support from Eleanor and Louis. Henry moved quickly and decisively. He imprisoned Eleanor and defeated his sons’ allies one by one. He also performed penance in Becket’s tomb in Canterbury, dubbing the ‘Great Revolt’ as a divine punishment. Louis proposed peace talks in 1174, formally bringing an end to the conflict.
• In the years after the ‘Great Revolt’, both Young Henry and Geoffrey died and Richard grew close to Philip, Louis’ son and the assertive and calculating new king of France. It was quite evident that Henry preferred John over Richard. Richard, being well aware of it, demanded to be named his father’s successor, only to be refused repeatedly.
• Richard gave formal homage to Philip in front of his father in a peace meeting attended by the nobility of both countries. By now Henry’s health was deteriorating due to a bleeding ulcer, which would prove to be fatal.
• Henry II returned to Anjou with Philip and Richard in hot pursuit. The opposing parties met at a negotiation at Ballan, where Henry accepted the offer of complete surrender. He died on July 6, 1189, and was buried in Fontevraud Abbey, where, later, Eleanor and Richard would join him.

Administrative Policies

• Though in the early part of his reign Henry relied on his father’s former advisors, he increasingly promoted minor nobles to important roles, thus creating the infrastructural foundation for modern bureaucracy.
• He was steady and pragmatic in the changes he brought about to the law of his kingdom. He cracked down on crimes, and delivered justice through exchequer courts and General Eyre.

Personal Life & Legacy

• According to contemporary scholars, Henry II was handsome and had freckles and a shock of red hair. Short and stocky, he had bowed legs from riding. The entire Plantagenet dynasty is infamous for their explosive temper, and Henry, the founder, was even more so. Chroniclers have characterised him to be a bully and added that he had a piercing stare and would often appear sullen.
• Besides his children with Eleanor, he was the father of Geoffrey (born 1152), Archbishop of York and William Longespée (1176), third Earl of Salisbury from other women.
• Though intensely disliked by his contemporaries, Henry is remembered as the first ruler to bring England under one kingship. The Plantagenet dynasty was the longest reigning royal house in the history of the country.

Trivia

• Henry was the first ruler to use the title ‘King of England’, rather than previously used ‘King of the English’.